Sarah Hotchkiss: Victorian Algologists — UNCTUOUS BETWEEN FINGERS

The 19th century is renowned for being an era of crazed preoccupation with natural history. The Victorians in particular, were obsessed with collecting and chronicling nature in all its forms and the study of seaweed became extremely popular. It was a time of rapid advancement in scientific discovery. It was also a time when fascination with the natural world not only became socially acceptable but a must for the fashionable elite and middle classes. As such, women were encouraged to engage. “Seaweeding” i.e. the collection and study of seaweeds became a favourite pastime for women.

Amelia Griffiths Collection @ RAMM. Photos permitted use by Royal Albert Memorial Museum & Gallery, Exeter.

For many women, it afforded an opportunity to indulge in more independent activities and to gain knowledge in a field that was not exclusively the domain of men. For a few however, it was a chance to truly excel and to make significant contribution in the field of phycology (the scientific study of algae) or algology as it was then known. Throughout much of the 1800s a network of dedicated female algologists including Catherine Cutler, Margaret Gatty, Isabella Gifford, Amelia Griffiths, Ellen Hutchins and Mary Wyatt (amongst many others) was recognised as one of the driving forces behind the advancement of marine botany in Britain. In 1842, J.R. Hulme, author of The Scarborough Algae wrote that women were pre-eminent in the study of algae at that time and that much of the current knowledge was due to their indefatigable efforts.

So, what do we know about the indefatigable women?

Catherine Cutler, Isabella Gifford, Amelia Griffiths and Mary Wyatt spent most of their lives, if not all, in the South West of England. Margaret Gatty was based in Yorkshire and Ellen Hutchins was an Irish botanist. It is clear from the locality and collector identifiers on specimens collected by them at the time that they collected extensively in their own localities but also travelled further afield. On occasions they collected together or with other botanists and algologists.

Despite the very real interest in seaweed at the time, it was nigh on impossible to identify them as many had not been clearly described or even named. It wasn’t until the 18th century that any real progress was made in the scientific study of seaweed. As microscopes and printed books became more readily available this started to change but even in the early 19th century, studies on the British seaweeds were few and limited in scope. Amelia Griffiths is famed for her use of descriptive names for the seaweeds that she collected, such as “bottle brush” and “cobweb”, she had to be inventive where scientific names were lacking. What was needed was a comprehensive handbook of British seaweeds and so she set about encouraging the leading experts to produce one.

The challenge was taken on by Robert Kaye Greville and William Henry Harvey (amongst others). Greville was an expert on Scottish cryptogams (term used to describe lower plants such as seaweed, ferns and mosses) and Harvey a noted Irish botanist and phycologist. Harvey is said to have turned his attention to seaweed because they were “comparatively neglected”. Both were wholeheartedly supported in their efforts by the female collectors who provided specimens and field notes that were key to defining the geographical, seasonal and habitat ranges of different seaweed species. They were also collectively responsible for the discovery of many rare or new species.

Isabella Gifford Herbarium. Photo by Sarah Hotchkiss, permitted use by Somerset Archaeological and History Society and South West Heritage Trust

Greville and Harvey would have been grateful recipients of bundles and packages of pressed specimens and accompanying notes. By all accounts, the specimens that they provided were of good condition, beautifully presented and often showing a particular trait or reproductive status that was critical for their description and classification. Sharing of specimens was an important part of the 1800s seaweed scene, not just amongst algologists but also for collectors and enthusiasts. Botanical societies and Exchange clubs for sharing of specimens were in existence but much of this was conducted by correspondence and unsurprisingly, firm often lifelong friendships were forged.

Greville published his Algae Britannicae in 1830. It took much longer to produce than anticipated. In his own words, he explained that his work had required “intense observation and study” and “extensive communication” with a network of other experts in the field. He was generous in his acknowledgement of the help that he received but above all, he openly praised the contributions of the female collaborators. In fact, he dedicated Algae Britannicae to their efforts.

Its not without a feeling of extreme pleasure that, by means of the present Work, I shall place in the hands of my fair and intelligent countrywomen, a guide to some of the wonders of the Great Deep; nor need I be ashamed to confess that I have kept them in view throughout the whole undertaking. To them we are indebted for much of what we know upon the subject. The very beauty and delicacy of the objects have ever attracted their attention; and who will deny the rationality of that admiration which is expended on the works of an Almighty Hand – or censure as trifling the collecting of things, even in the absence of information concerning them, which, if contemplated as they ought to be, can only tend to refine the mind, and raise its sentiments. To Mrs GRIFFITHS, Miss HUTCHINS, Miss HILL, Miss CUTLER, and Mrs HARE, we owe very many discoveries.
Robert Kaye Greville, Algae Britannicae 1830

Harvey published his Phycologia Britannica in 4 volumes between 1847-1851. His books provided detailed descriptions of “all the species of algae inhabiting the shores of the British Islands” and were laid out using a new systematic approach for the classification of seaweeds. This formed the basis of the system that is still used today. But in 1849 he published the long awaited Manual of the British Marine Algae. Like Greville, Harvey readily acknowledged that his work was only possible a result of the “unwearied assistance” and “essential service” of a network of fellow algologists. But he dedicated this work to Mrs (Amelia) Griffiths.

Algae Danmonienses , Mary Wyatt, photo by Sarah Hotchkiss, permitted use by Somerset Archaeological and History Society and South West Heritage Trust

“A lady whose long-continued researches have more than those of any other observer in Britain contributed to the advanced state of marine botany”
William Henry Harvey 1849.

Mary Wyatt, Margaret Gatty and Isabella Gifford also published books. Harvey suggested that Mary produce a series of albums of pressed seaweeds to accompany his more technical texts, which she did. Harvey believed that pressed specimens would give the readers a better sense of the seaweeds. He also wrote in one of this letters that preparing dried specimens was the best way to master their identification. Algae Danmonienses (Algae of Devon) was published in four volumes between 1833 and 1841 with each containing 50 pressed specimens. Several years later, Margaret Gatty published her British Seaweeds. It was the culmination of around 14 years of study. Isabella Gifford produced several editions of The Marine Botanist between 1848 and 1853, it contained scientific descriptions of many common seaweeds and notes on how to collect and preserve them.

In a time when women were not actively encouraged to pursue scientific study beyond what was considered hobby status or allowed membership to scientific societies, the achievements of these women were quite remarkable. They not only made substantial contributions to the advancement of British marine botany and but gained recognition where it was truly deserved. They are honoured, as is only fitting, in having seaweeds named for them – Cutleria, Gattya, Giffordia, Griffithsia, Hutchinsia and Wyattia.

Ellen Hutchins (1785-1815)

Ellen Hutchins is credited as Ireland’s first female botanist. She was born in Ballylikey, West Cork, Ireland in 1785. By the time she was a young woman she had already developed the necessary skill to collect and identify plants and seaweeds. She was also a skilful water colour artist and recorded many of her finds. Ellen regularly sent specimens to the Dublin based botanist James Townsend Mackay and to Dawson Turner in England who published a number of studies on seaweeds in the early 1800s.

Many of the letters written between Ellen and Dawson Turner have survived and have been used to retell her story. Their friendship is described as one that started of plants and letters. They never met but a deep and respectful friendship developed. Dawson even asked Ellen to be Godmother to his daughter.

Ellen and her family were plagued with ill health and she sadly died at the young age of 29, but in her 8 years of active botanising she made a significant contribution and discovered several new species, Ellen was buried in an unmarked grave but her life and legacy are now actively celebrated, see the Ellen Hutchins website for more detail.

Further reading

Hutchins, M. (2019). Ellen Hutchins (1785-1815): Botanist of Bantry Bay

The Ellen Hutchins website. Accessed November 2021.

Amelia Griffiths (1768-1858)

Amelia Warren Griffiths was born in North Devon on 14th January 1768. She was the oldest daughter of John & Emily Rogers of Longstone House, Pilton. In 1794 she married the Reverend William Griffiths of Otterton, Devon, eventually moving to St Issey in Cornwall where he became vicar. William Griffiths died suddenly in 1802, reportedly out of “love or madness” although the coroner ruled for accidental death. After his death, Amelia and her five young children moved from Cornwall to South Devon, first to Ottery St Mary where it is said that her interest in marine botany began.

Whilst there, she was encouraged in her study by Reverend Samuel Goodenough, fellow algologist and founding member of the Linnaean Society. However, a pressed seaweed specimen from a collection by Amelia Griffiths is housed at the Royal Albert Memorial Museum in Exeter and is reported to be the oldest biological specimen. This specimen was collected in 1801, suggesting that Amelia was already interested in seaweeds whilst living in Cornwall. Whilst at Ottery St Mary, her interest in seaweed grew. She travelled widely in Devon, Dorset and Cornwall collecting specimens and eventually decided to move to Torbay with her two daughters so that she could best pursue her passion. Her youngest daughter, Amelia Elizabeth, is also recognised for her contribution to the field. It was when she was living in Torbay that Amelia engaged Mary Wyatt as a servant and the four of them collected together.

Amelia was regarded as a gifted scholar and her reputation grew to such an extent that William Henry Harvey described her as the “facile regina of British seaweeds”. He dedicated his 1849 Manual of British Algae to her. Swedish botanist Carl Agardh named the red seaweed genus Griffithsia in her honour and Harvey fondly referred to her as the patron saint of Griffithsia

"If I lean to glorify any one, it is Mrs Griffiths, to whom I owe much of the little acquaintance I have with the variations to which these plants are subject, and who is always ready to supply me with fruits of plants which every one else finds barren. She is worth ten thousand other collectors.
William Henry Harvey 1849

Amelia corresponded widely with leading experts and enthusiasts and was generous in sharing specimens. She and Harvey developed a close friendship through years of correspondence, but they didn’t meet until 1839 when Harvey visited Torbay. By then Amelia was in her 70s. Amelia remained in Torbay for the rest of her life. She was offered associate membership of the Torquay Natural History Society when it was founded in 1844 but as she was barred from full membership (on account of being a woman) she declined, stating that “it was an honour devoid of privilege”. She continued her study and to collect seaweed well into her eighties. Harvey remarked that she was “..a wonderful specimen of vigour at eighty two”. She died at home on 4th January 1858 just ten days before her 90th birthday and is buried in Tor churchyard.

The bulk of her seaweed collection is now housed at Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew although there are smaller collections at the Torbay Museum, Royal Albert Memorial Museum in Exeter and the North Devon Athenaeum, Barnstaple. She assisted Mary Wyatt in the publication of Algae Danmonienses and was instrumental in driving many publications on British seaweed but she wrote little that was published by herself.

Further reading

The Mannings Pit website. Accessed November 2021

The St Issey Folk Genealogy website. Accessed November 2021

The Royal Albert Memorial Museum website. Accessed November 2021

The Devonshire Association. 1952, Flora of Devon. Volume II, Part I. The marine algae. Torquay.

The Torbay Weekly website. Accessed November 2021.

Obituary: Isabella Gifford. Journal of Botany. Volume 30. 1892.

Gifford, I. (1848). The Marine Botanist; an introduction to the study of algology, containing descriptions of the commonest British sea-weeds, with figures of the most remarkable species. Darton and Co., London.

Gifford, I (1825-1891). The Natstand website. Accessed November 2021.

Mary Wyatt (1789-1871)

Mary Wyatt was born in St Stephens, Cornwall in 1789. Very little is known about her life before her association with Amelia Griffiths. Tempting though it is to speculate that the two met in Cornwall, Mary was reportedly engaged by Amelia Griffiths when she moved to Torbay in 1829. It is well documented that she soon became a valued companion and respected fellow phycologist. Mary married William Wyatt in 1830, he was a trader of seashells in Torbay. Although allegedly illiterate, she is reported to have been of significant help with her husband’s business and it is likely that she was also selling specimens of pressed seaweeds to tourists.

With assistance from Amelia Griffiths and encouragement from William Henry Harvey, Mary published a series of pressed seaweed albums - Algae Danmonienses (Algae of Devon) between 1833 and 1841. Four volumes, each containing 50 pressed specimens were published. Volumes sold for 25 shillings each or £1 for the whole subscription. Volume 3 was dedicated to the Princess Victoria who was known to have her own seaweed album.

Mary and William Wyatt moved to Brixham, South Devon when his health started to fail. William died in 1858 a few months after Amelia Griffiths. Mary herself died of bronchitis in November 1871 at the age of 82. Nothing is known of Mary Wyatt’s life after her friend and husband passed away but her volumes of Algae Danmonienses sold well and undoubtedly fuelled the craze for “seaweeding” that was reaching fever pitch by mid-century.

Further reading

Raiment, DC. (2007) Mary Wyatt (1989-1871): The Princess of Seaweeds. The Phycologist 73: 4-5.

The Devonshire Association. 1952, Flora of Devon. Volume II, Part I. The marine algae. Torquay.

The Torbay Weekly website. Accessed November 2021.

Margaret Gatty (1809-1873)

British sea-weeds: drawing from Professor Harvey's "Phycologia Britannica" drawn by Margaret Gatty, 1872, open source image, via wikimedia commons.

Margaret Gatty was born in Essex in June 1809. Her mother died when she was only two years old and so she and her older sister Horatia were raised and educated by their father, the Reverend Alexander John Scott who had been the personal chaplain to Horatio Nelson. The family moved to Ecclesfield in Yorkshire where in 1837, Margaret married the Reverend Alfred Gatty. In the Census of 1851, she is listed as “Wife of a Clergyman and Algologist”. She was a writer and published a number of stories on nature and books for children before diverting her attentions to seaweed. In 1848 she spent time convalescing in Hastings, she referred to this period as “life changing” as it was here that she was introduced to the fashionable pastime seaweeding. Pastime rapidly developed into scientific study and her reputation as an algologist grew.

Margaret was in regular correspondence with noted algologists of the day including William Henry Harvey, Dr George Johnston and the Reverend David Landsborough. She is known to have spoken several languages including German and Italian and also corresponded with a network of international phycologists. In 1863 she published her own book on seaweeds (under the name of Mrs Alfred Gatty) with help and guidance from William Harvey. The book, British Seaweeds was the culmination of around 14 years of her phycological studies. From around 1850 she began to suffer from ill health but continued to collect and work with the help of her family.

Margaret was great friends with fellow algologist Catherine Cutler who had been a friend of her mother Mary Frances Ryder. The two entered into an agreement - whoever outlived the other would inherit the collection of the deceased. Catherine died 7 years before Margaret and her collection of specimens and books passed to Margaret. Margaret died in October 1873 in Ecclesfield. Her seaweed collection, including that from Catherine Cutler, passed to her daughter Horatia who continued in her mother’s footsteps. Margaret and Horatia are commemorated by a stained glass window in St Marys Church, Ecclesfield.

Further reading

Bryant et al (2016). Life and work of Margaret Gatty (1809–1873), with particular reference to British sea-weeds (1863). Archives of natural history 43.1 (2016): 131–147.

The Devonshire Association. 1952, Flora of Devon. Volume II, Part I. The marine algae. Torquay.

St Marys Church website. Accessed November 2021.

Hunt, S. (2005). “‘Free, Bold, Joyous’: The Love of Seaweed in Margaret Gatty and Other Mid-Victorian Writers.” Environment and History, vol. 11, no. 1, White Horse Press. pp. 5–34.

Gatty, Mrs. A. (1872). British Seaweeds. Bell and Daldy, York Street, Covent Garden, London. Illustrated.

Drain (2004). Gatty (nee Scott), Margaret biography. Oxford Dictionary of Biography.

Catherine Cutler (1785-1866)

Pressed specimen from Catherine Cutler – part of the Cresswell Collection @ RAMM. Photo by Sarah Hotchkiss, permitted use by Royal Albert Memorial Museum, Exeter.

Very little is known about Catherine Cutler despite her being one of the most respected of the female algologists of the time. She hailed from Sidmouth, Devon and later lived in East Budleigh and Exmouth. Although she never moved far afield to live, she did travel and is reported to have collected seaweeds along the southern and northern coasts of Devon. She never married and lived for much of her life with her also unmarried sisters Eleanor and Elizabeth. The three are recorded in the census as living by independent means which suggests a wealthy background.

Catherine appears to have been well connected and respected. She was friends with Amelia Griffiths (and presumably Mary Wyatt), William Harvey and fellow botanist and collecting companion the Reverend Cresswell. Her obituary in the Journal of Botany (1866) makes reference to her fine algal herbarium which was presented to the British Museum. However, her collection of specimens and books passed to Margaret Gatty and then on to Horatia, Margaret’s daughter, who was also a phycologist. Catherine was great friends with Margaret Gatty through her mother Mary Frances Ryder. Catherine and Margaret made a pact that whoever survived the other, would inherit their seaweed collection. Catherine died in 1866, Margaret in 1873. Catherine is not known to have published anything in her own right, but she known to be generous in sharing specimens and possibly drawings.

Further reading

The Sheffield Museums website. Accessed November 2021

The Royal Albert Memorial Museum website. Accessed November 2021.

The Devonshire Association. 1952, Flora of Devon. Volume II, Part I. The marine algae. Torquay.

Isabella Gifford (1825-1891)

Isabella Gifford was born in Defynnog near Brecon in Wales, in around 1825, the only daughter of Major George St John Gifford and his wife Isabella who was described as a “rarely gifted and most cultured woman”. Isabella had a brother, but he died young. In her earlier years, the family lived in France, Jersey, Dorset and Falmouth before settling in Minehead, Somerset circa 1850. Isabella was educated by her mother who was literary, but her knowledge of nature and science was entirely self-taught. Whilst Isabella is remembered for her contributions to the field of phycology, she had much wider interests. She was an avid botanist and a member of the Selbourne Society, the pioneering conservation movement that was the driving force behind opposition to the plumage trade and subsequent founding of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds.

She is particularly noted for her skill in pressing seaweed specimens and her “fine” collection of more than 900 species is housed at the South West Heritage Trust, Somerset. She was a member of several Botanical Exchange groups and regularly corresponded with fellow phycologists Mr E.M. Holmes and E.A. Batters. The latter naming the brown seaweed genus Giffordia in honour of her contribution to algology. She is one of the few women that published a book on seaweed. Between 1848 and 1853 she produced several editions of The Marine Botanist which contained scientific descriptions of many common seaweeds and notes on how to collect and preserve them.

It is likely that she was associated with the publication of The Little Marine Botanist in 1842, a booklet that was produced as part of a series for children. Also including The little Geologist and The Little Conchologist. The booklet was published under the name of Rev. T Wilson (probably a pseudonym) as Isabella would only have been around 16 years old at the time.

Her father died in 1869, after which she and her mother lived a quiet life in Minehead until they both succumbed to influenza at Christmas time 1891. Isabella and her mother died within 24 hours of one another and were buried on New Year’s Eve.

Further reading

Obituary: Isabella Gifford. Journal of Botany. Volume 30. 1892.

Gifford, I. (1848). The Marine Botanist; an introduction to the study of algology, containing descriptions of the commonest British sea-weeds, with figures of the most remarkable species. Darton and Co., London.

Gifford, I (1825-1891). The Natstand website. Accessed November 2021.

Seaweeding

In the mid 19th century, flower pressing was a common past time for middle and upper class women and for those with access to the shore, this extended to pressing seaweed. It afforded an opportunity to explore artistic tendencies and nature study was deemed a morally rewarding activity.

Flowers and seaweed were pressed as mementos, to mark loved ones, occasions and outings and holidays. There was a certain amount of skill involved in arranging the seaweed for pressing, both from an aesthetic perspective and in handling the difficult material. Care was taken in the arrangement and often the seaweeds were combined with pressed flowers and lace to form more intricate designs or pictures. Pressed specimens were also collected in albums (known as herbaria) and these took pride of place in the Victorian parlour.

“Have you made an herbarium yet? I hope you will if you have not, it would be such a treasure to you; most all the girls are making one.”
Emily Dickinson 1845

Pressing, journaling, sketching and painting were deemed as acceptably genteel and rewarding activities for women however, pastimes that included an element of physical exercise and intellectual stimulation were also encouraged. Such activities conformed to the Victorian ideal of rational recreation i.e. the idea that leisure time should combine pleasure with some form of physical, intellectual and moral self-improvement. Seaweeding was thus suitably fashionable but it also afforded certain freedoms for women when it came to collecting specimens. The practicalities of negotiating the shore necessitated a flexibility in some social norms. Etiquette surrounding dress, behaviour and sometimes even companionship was often relaxed. But such freedoms didn’t suit all women and very clear distinction was made between those that practiced “closet” seaweeding and the more adventurous “field” enthusiasts.

When it came to dress and comfort, fellow female collectors frequently offered advice. Whether that was to recommend locations with genteel topography and little risk of getting wet or to shun social dress codes and to don a pair of boy’s boots. The algologist Margaret Gatty was particularly forthcoming on the matter.

“If anything would excuse a woman for imitating the costume of a man, it would be what she suffers as a sea-weed collector from those necessary draperies. But to make the best of a bad matter, let woollen be in the ascendant as much as possible; and let the petticoats never come below the ankle.”
Margaret Gatty 1872

Further reading

Logan, T (2001). The Victorian Parlour: A Cultural Study - Cambridge Studies in Nineteenth-Century Literature and Culture. Cambridge University Press. 304 pp.

Farr, J (2014). Victorian Treasure. Emily Dickinson’s Herbarium. Accessed November 2021.

Plunkett & Hyadjiafxendi (2017). Science at the Seaside: Pleasure Hunts in Victorian Devon. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198795155.003.0010

Hunt, S. (2005). “‘Free, Bold, Joyous’: The Love of Seaweed in Margaret Gatty and Other Mid-Victorian Writers.” Environment and History, vol. 11, no. 1, White Horse Press. 5–34.

Exchange clubs for sharing of specimens

Sharing of specimens was an important part of the 1800s seaweed collecting scene. For amateur algologists, enthusiasts and collectors it was a way of expanding their collections. Especially for those with no access to the coast. Botanical societies started in the first half of the 19th century and also exchange clubs. Exchange clubs afforded the opportunity to source and swap specimens. Members could post their desiderata i.e. lists of specimens they were interested in acquiring and also distribute specimens they had collected. To this end, catalogues of British algae were printed and sold. These were used for marking desiderata but also for making labels for albums and herbaria. Some followed the systematic arrangement of the seaweeds as presented in Harvey’s Manual of the British Marine Algae, thus allowing individuals to create their own systematically arranged supplementary volume. Along the lines of the Algae Danmonienses volumes produced by Mary Wyatt and Amelia Griffiths.

Enthusiasts could also boost their collections by purchasing sets of pressed specimens. For example, Dr Harvey’s Australian Algae. In 1853, William Harvey embarked on a three-year voyage of the southern oceans. He sold subscriptions for sets of pressed seaweeds to part fund his trip. Around 50 sets were distributed in the 1850’s. They were popular additions to the collections of the wealthier enthusiasts. One of the larger sets, containing over 400 specimens cost £10 at the time, around £1000 these days.

Further reading

Botanical Society of Britain & Ireland website. Accessed November 2021.

Parnell et al (2010). W.H. Harvey's Australian travelling sets of algae in the herbarium of Trinity College Dublin (TCD) and the National Herbarium of Victoria (MEL), Australia. Biology & Environment Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy · September 2010

A Fine Herbarium: The Reverend Hore Collection. Museum of Barnstaple and North Devon website. Accessed November 2021.

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Sarah Hotchkiss is a Phycologist. Her fascination with the marine world and seaweed in particular, began at an early age and she was determined to be a marine biologist. She spent many years as a researcher in the fields of seaweed biology, ecology and taxonomy. She now works as a consultant to the seaweed industry. But it was whilst working as a taxonomist that she came to really appreciate the beauty of seaweed and was privileged to work with specimens that had been collected by early “algologists”.

Sarah Hotchkiss:

Victorian Algologists

Further reading

Ellen Hutchins (1785-1815)

Amelia Griffiths (1768-1858)

Mary Wyatt (1789-1871)

Margaret Gatty (1809-1873)

Catherine Cutler (1785-1866)

Isabella Gifford (1825-1891)

Seaweeding

Exchange clubs for sharing of specimens

Frankie Dytor: ‘my botanic friends’: the queer companionship of seaweed

Kayle Brandon: Seaweed Service